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Measurements for the Household 





Commissioner of Weights and Measures. 


issucu uy 

THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS 

DEPARTMENT OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

THURE HANSON, Commissioner 
STATE HOUSE, BOSTON 


BOSTON 

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS 
32 DERNE STREET 
1916 






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Approved by 

The State Board of Publication. 


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CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction, ............. 5 

General suggestions to housekeepers, ......... 7 

Marking of food packages, .......... 8 

Definition of term “food,” .......... 8 

Comparison of foods in bulk and package form, ...... 8 

Massachusetts’ principal industry — housekeeping, ...... 10 

Precautions to be observed in making purchases, . . . . . .10 

Penalty for giving false weight or measure, ....... 12 

Legal weight of bushel of various commodities, . . . . . .13 

Importance of saving paper and rags, ........ 15 

Importance of measurements in housekeeping, ....... 16 

Measurements of household products and processes, ..... 16 

Household measuring appliances, ........ 16 

Kitchen measuring appliances, . . . . . . . . .16 

Equivalents of capacity units used in the kitchen, ..... 18 

Heat and heating appliances, .......... 20 

Heating value of fuels, .......... 20 

Radiation of heat, ........... 22 

Regulation of stoves, ranges and other heating appliances, . . . .24 

Coal,.27 

Average weight of anthracite coal in pounds per cubic foot, . . . .28 

Refrigeration, ............. 29 

Refrigerators, ............ 29 

Ice,.30 

Light, .............. 31 

Sources and cost of light, .......... 31 

The gas meter index and how to read it, ....... 32 

Cost of gas consumed per hour, ......... 34 

Reading the watt hour meter dials, ........ 35 

Causes of high bills for electricity, ........ 36 

Electricity comparatively inexpensive, ....... 37 

Water, .............. 39 

Accuracy of water meters, .......... 39 

Reading of water meters, .......... 39 

Using the water meter as a measuring appliance, . . . . . .41 

Conservation of water supplies, . . . . . . . . .41 

Measurements of time, ........... 42 

Correct time, ............ 42 

Care of timepieces, ^ . 43 

Use of a timepiece in the kitchen, ........ 43 

Brief reference tables of weights and measures, ....... 44 









4 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Fig. 1. — Deceptive extract bottles, ........ 9 

Fig. 2. — The thrifty housekeeper, . . . . . . . . .11 

Fig. 3. — Household measuring appliances, . . . . . . .17 

Fig. 4. — Measures used in the kitchen, ........ 18 

Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8. — Various types of thermometers, ..... 22, 23, 24 

Fig. 9. — Fahrenheit and centigrade temperature scales, ..... 26 

Fig. 10. — Circulation of air in usual types of refrigerators, ..... 29 

Fig. 11. — Relative cost of producing light by various illuminants, . . .32 

Fig. 12. — The index of a gas meter, ......... 33 

Fig. 13. — Cost of gas consumed per hour in some common gas appliances, . . 34 

Figs. 14 and 15. — Dials of electric meters, ....... 35 

Fig. 16. — Form of direct-reading water-meter dial, ...... 39 

Fig. 17. — Ordinary form of water-meter dial, ....... 40 

Fig. 18. — Water leaks of various sizes, ........ 41 






INTRODUCTION’. 


The purpose of this circular is (1) to give information as to units, 
methods and instruments of measurement useful in household 
activities; (2) to describe available means of assuring correct quan¬ 
tity in articles bought by weight and measure; and (3) to give other 
facts of interest which would awaken an appreciation of the role of 
measurement in daily life. 

It was with the purpose of making the results of the work of the 
Department of Weights and Measures available to the public in so 
far as this work is related to the work of the household that this 
pamphlet has been prepared. 

Credit is due to the United States Bureau of Standards for much 
of the subject-matter and many of the illustrations contained in this 
publication. 




Commissioner. 


State House, Boston, July, 1916. 










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MEASUREMENTS FOR THE HOUSEHOLD. 


GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS. 

The efficient management of the modern household is greatly pro¬ 
moted by the careful use of proper weighing and measuring appli¬ 
ances and the exercise of due care on the part of the housekeeper in 
seeing that the quantity of commodities delivered coincides in all 
cases with that purchased and paid for, and the purpose of this 
circular is to serve as a guide to thrifty housekeepers. 

Within the last decade radical changes have been made in the 
laws, until to-day all weighing and measuring devices in commercial 
use must be sealed and accurate; all sales of commodities must be 
made under such conditions as to prevent fraud or mistake; and 
the Commissioner of Weights and Measures, his inspectors and the 
local sealers of weights and measures are empowered to enforce 
these enactments. 

While this legislation has resulted in vast improvement in methods 
of merchandising, these officials cannot supervise all sales which are 
made, and it is only by the purchasers knowing what they are en¬ 
titled to, and insisting upon getting it, that they can be fully 
protected. 

In general, the customer should see that the scale is in balance, 
or that the indicator is at zero, when there is no load upon the scale; 
that there are no attachments which appear to be unnecessary or 
foreign to the weighing or measuring device; and that no paper or 
other article is placed upon the pan or attached to any movable 
part of the scale. 

A legal weight has now been established for nearly all fruits and 
vegetables, and the use of the measure is illegal in the sale of any 
of these; the measures may still, however, be used in the sale of 
nuts and berries, and care should be taken to see that the standard 
dry quart measure is used and not the liquid quart, which contains 
approximately 15 per cent: less than the dry quart. 



8 


When purchasing fruit or vegetables from a hawker or pedler, 
you should see that he uses a scale instead of a measure in making 
the sale, also observing the number of his license so that he may be 
easily traced in case of complaint. 

Marking of Food Packages. 

Chapter 653, Acts of 1914, which became effective on Sept. 3, 
1915, requires that all articles of food sold or offered for sale in 
package form shall be plainly and conspicuously marked with a 
statement of the net quantity of the contents on the outside of the 
package in terms of weight, measure or numerical count. 

Purchasers are urgently requested to notify this Department of 
all cases coming to their attention where food sold in package form 
does not bear the required statement of contents, or where this 
statement is not so placed and in such characters as to be readily 
seen and clearly legible when the size of the package and the cir¬ 
cumstances under which it is ordinarily examined by purchasers or 
consumers are taken into consideration. 

Definition of Term “ Food.” 

The term “food,” as used in this act, includes all articles, whether 
simple, mixed or compound, used for food, drink, confectionery or 
condiment by man or other animals. 

Comparison of Foods in Bulk and Package Form. 

Up to this time, in purchasing food, commodities in the original 
package the housewife has usually been limited to comparisons of 
quality and apparent price, which is of course the price per package. 
In comparing two brands of a food in packages of equal size these 
comparisons were trustworthy. When there was a difference in the 
size of package, however, economy in buying could not be obtained 
from a knowledge of these two factors alone. There might be a 
large difference in price per unit of quantity which would outweigh 
•an apparent difference in price per package, or slight difference in 
the quality; but with the quantity labeled upon each package the 
purchaser has all essential facts at hand to compare unit prices. 

Thus, we may compare two brands of package goods. Two pack¬ 
ages of raisins sell for 10 cents and 12 cents per package, respectively. 
The purchaser might consider that the 12-cent brand was worth 


9 


2 cents (or 20 per cent.) more than the 10-cent brand, but upon 
examination of the labels, however, if it appeared that the former 
contained 16 ounces and the latter only 12 ounces, he might con¬ 
clude that the difference in price outweighed the advantages con¬ 
ceded for the higher priced package. 

Again, a package of crackers may sell for 10 cents per package 
and crackers in bulk for 10 cents per pound. The purchaser might 
consider the package goods more desirable and disregard the weight. 
Under these conditions the package brand would naturally be 



Fig. 1. — Three bottles of extract (front and side views). 

This shows the impossibility of correctly estimating the quantity of contents from apparent size of the 
container. The bottle which is apparently smallest holds the most, and vice versa. 


selected. But the quantity is now marked on the package. Sup¬ 
pose in the case mentioned above the weight is 10 ounces. The cost 
per pound of the package goods is therefore 16 cents and of those 
in bulk 10 cents. The knowledge thus conveyed, that the brand 
somewhat better in quality or flavor was 60 per cent, higher in price, 
might entirely outweigh the slight difference in quality and persuade 
the purchaser that the bulk goods were the better for the purpose. 
Therefore the careful purchaser should first examine the labels on 
the packages, observe the net contents, and determine therefrom the 
price per unit weight. If these precautions are neglected much of 
the value of an excellent protective statute will be lost. 















10 



MASSACHUSETTS’ PRINCIPAL INDUSTRY — HOUSEKEEPING. 

Precautions to be observed in Making Purchases. 

If you are engaged in this industry you should — 

Trade with dealers who have accurate and sealed weighing and 
measuring devices. 

Check up all goods received, to ascertain if full quantity has been 
delivered. 

Purchase package goods which are legibly marked on the outside 
of package with the net quantity which it contains. 

See that your milk and cream bottles are filled to the cap or 
stopple. 

The coal dealer is required by law to deliver to you a sworn 
statement as to the weight delivered. See that you receive such a 
certificate. 

If any coal dealer neglects to give you a certificate stating the num¬ 
ber of pounds contained in a load that is being delivered to you, the 
local sealer of weights and measures should be promptly notified. 

In purchasing ice be careful to ask for a certain weight of ice, 
viz., 50 pounds, 75 pounds, 100 pounds, and do not be content to 
accept 10-cent, 20-cent, 30-cent pieces. 

In purchasing meats request that all “trimmings” be included 
with purchase; otherwise a correct check of goods cannot be made. 

In purchasing turkey, chicken, etc., do not accept the weight as 
sometimes already marked on the same, but insist that the com¬ 
modity be reweighed in your presence. 

Equip your kitchen with a good scale of 10 to 20 pounds capacity, 
weighing in ounces, and have it tested and sealed annually by the 
local sealer of weights and measures. Use this scale for checking all 
weights of commodities delivered, and if under weight is found to 
exist, do not fail to bring each case to the attention of the dealer. 
The shortage may be due merely to carelessness, but you are entitled 
to full weight, and he should know that you are a business woman and 
will not countenance unbusinesslike methods in his dealings with you. 

Also have on hand an accurate peck measure, a dry quart, a 
liquid quart, a 60-inch steel tape, an 8-ounce graduate. These 
should also be submitted to the sealer for test. 

Be businesslike when purchasing. The merchant is careful that 


11 


in his sales he receives full value for correct weight or measure given. 
He is obliged to be thus careful, else his business would be done at 
a loss. Why then should the business of housekeeping be done in a 
careless manner and at a loss. Order commodities in terms of weight 



the supplied. 


Fig. 2. — Thrifty housekeeper. 


and measure. Do not order a “pail of lard,” “print of butter,” 
“30-cents worth of potatoes,” “piece of bacon,” “can of oil,” “box 
or basket of fruit,” unless you know how much that pail, print, 
package, etc., contains in weight or measure. 





12 


Refuse to accept a bill from your tradesman made in the following 
manner: — 

Beef, 

Butter, 

Oil, 

Lard, 

Insist that a bill be rendered in the following manner: — 

Beef, 1 pound 6 ounces, 

Butter, 1 pound, 

Oil, 1 gallon, 

Lard, 1 pound, . 

Penalty for giving False Weight or Measure. 

Section 1, Chapter 394 , Acts of 1907 , as amended by Chapter 163 , Acts of 1911 . 

Whoever, himself or by his servant or agent or as the servant or agent of 
another person, gives or attempts to give false or insufficient weight or measure 
shall for a first offence be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars, for a 
second offence by a fine of not more than two hundred dollars, and for a subse¬ 
quent offence by a fine of fifty dollars and by imprisonment for not less than 
thirty nor more than ninety days. 

Under the laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts you have 
definite rights in the matter of getting full measure and full weight 
of everything you buy, and the State Department of Weights and 
Measures and your local sealer stand ready to help you get your rights. 
This is a protection that is due the honest dealer as well as yourself. 

You are probably very careful in making your purchases to require 
good quality. Should you not be as careful as to quantity received for 
the amount expended? 

The retailer checks up all goods received. If he sells intelligently, 
he sells most of his commodities by weight. The housekeeper should 
be as careful when purchasing. 

The State Department of Weights and Measures and your local 
sealer want your co-operation in the cause of honest weights and 
measures. 

Do not accuse any merchant of giving short weight unless you 
are absolutely sure. It may be that your scales are wrong, and you 
would be doing a great injustice to the merchant. When in doubt 
always have your goods reweighed by the sealer. 


$0 40 
35 
15 
15 


$0 40 
35 
15 
10 







13 


Section 21, Chapter 57, Revised Laws, as amended by Chapter 246, Acts of 1912, 

and Chapter 713, Acts of 1913. 

All fruits, vegetables and nuts, except as hereinafter otherwise provided, 
shall be sold at retail by dry measure, weight or by numerical count, and all 
fruits and vegetables for which a legal weight has been established, except peas 
and beans sold in quantities of four quarts or less for seeding or planting purposes, 
shall be sold at retail only by weight or numerical count. Whoever violates 
any provision of this section shall forfeit a sum not exceeding ten dollars for 
each offence. 


Legal Weight of Bushel of Various Commodities. 

Weights of One Bushel, One Peck and One Quart of Certain Vegetables, etc., as 

provided by the Laws of Massachusetts. 


COMMODITY. 

1 Bushel. 

1 Peck. 

1 Quart. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Ounces. 

Apples,. 

48 

12 

24 

Apples, dried,. 

25 

6M 

12)4 

Barley,. 

48 

12 

24 

Beans, ........... 

60 

15 

30 

Beans, Lima, .......... 

56 

14 

28 

Beans, shell, .......... 

28 

7 

14 

Beans, soy, .......... 

58 

14)4 

29 

Beans, scarlet or white runner, pole, ...".. 

50 

12)4 

25 

Beans, string, ......... 

24 

6 

12 

Beans, Windsor (broad), . .. 

47 

1 IH 

23)4 

Beets, ........... 

60 

15 

30 

Beet greens,. 

12 

3 

6 

Bran and shorts,. 

20 

5 

10 

Buckwheat,.. 

48 

12 

24 

Carrots,. 

50 

12)4 

25 

Corn (cracked),. 

50 

12)4 

25 

Corn, Indian,. 

56 

14 

28 

Cranberries,. 

32 

8 

16 

Dandelions,. 

12 

3 

6 

Feed,. 

50 

12M 

25 

Flaxseed,.. 

55 

13 H 

27'A 

Kale,. 

12 

3 

6 

Lime, ........... 

70 

17 t4 

35 




























14 


Weights of One Bushel , One Peck and One Quart, etc. — Concluded. 


COMMODITY. 

1 Bushel. 

1 Peck. 

1 Quart. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Ounces. 

Meal, corn. 

50 

12 54 

25 

Meal, rye,. 

50 

1254 

25 

Millet, Japanese,. 

35 

SH 

1754 

Oats,. 

32 

8 

16 

Onions. 

52 

13 

26 

Parsley,. 

8 

2 

4 

Parsnips,. 

45 

H54 

2254 

Peaches. 

48 

12 

24 

Peaches, dried. 

33 

m 

1654 

Peanuts, green,. 

22 

554 

11 

Peanuts, roasted,. 

20 

5 

10 

Pears,. 

58 

1454 

29 

Peas, smooth,. 

60 

15 

30 

Peas, unshelled, green, . 

28 

7 

14 

Peas, wrinkled,. 

56 

14 

28 

Potatoes,. 

60 

15 

30 

Potatoes, sweet,. 

54 

1354 

27 

Quinces,. 

48 

12 

24 

Rice, rough,. 

44 

11 

22 

Rye,. 

56 

14 

28 

Salt,. 

70 

1754 

35 

Seed, clover,. 

60 

15 

30 

Seed, herds grass or timothy,. 

45 

1154 

2254 

Seed, Sea Island cotton,. 

44 

11 

22 

Seed, upland cotton,. 

30 

754 

15 

Spinach, . 

12 

3 

6 

Tomatoes,., 

56 

14 

28 

Turnips,. 

55 

1354 

2754 

Wheat,. 

60 

15 

30 


Barrel. 


Flour, 

Potatoes, 
Potatoes, sweet, 
Liquid barrel, 
Hogshead, 


196 pounds. 
165 pounds. 
150 pounds. 
3154 gallons. 
2 barrels. 
































15 


Importance of Saving Paper and Rags. 

Save your old paper and rags! By so doing, according to the 
United States Department of Commerce, you not only will be en¬ 
riching yourself to a certain extent, but will be aiding paper manu¬ 
facturers to solve what promises to become a very serious problem 
— the shortage of raw materials. 

The reason for saving and selling waste paper is not solely that of 
getting money for it from the junkmen; it is to provide raw ma¬ 
terial that will keep the paper factories going, and that will conse¬ 
quently provide paper for newspapers and books, and for wrapping 
bundles and packing goods. 

The department is sending broadcast letters to business firms 
urging them to conserve their old paper. Something like 15,000 tons 
of paper are manufactured every day in the United States, and a 
large proportion of this, after being used, is thrown away and burned, 
with the result that just so much raw material must be obtained. 

Most of this paper can be used again in the manufacture of a 
slightly inferior grade. 

The following quaint notice tells, in a simple way, of the beginning 
in 1801 of the celebrated Crane paper mills at Dalton. It applies 
to these days as well as one hundred and fifteen years ago, for we 
are much in need of rags with which to make paper. The para¬ 
graph reads: — 

Americans! 

Encourage your own Manufactories, and they will improve. 

Ladies, fave your Rags. 

As the Subfcribers have it in contemplation to erect a PAPER-MILL in 
Dalton, the enfuing fpring; and the bufinefs being very beneficial to the com¬ 
munity at large, they flatter themfelves that they shall meet with due encourage¬ 
ment. And that every woman, who has the good of her country, and the inter- 
eft of her own family at heart will patronize them by faving their rags, and 
fending them to their Manufactory, or to the neareft Storekeeper — for which 
the Subfcribers will give a generous price. 

Henry Wiswall, 
Zen as Crane, 

John Willard. 

Worcefter, Feb. 8, 1801. 


16 


IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENTS IN HOUSEKEEPING. 

Measurements of Household Products and Processes. 

Improved precision has slowly evolved from the guesswork of 
earlier times. For example, terms like the “pinch of salt,” “speck 
of pepper,” “handful of rice,” “sweeten to taste” (units of vague 
magnitude) have gradually been replaced by definite amounts, 
specified and measured. A process is uncertain of success unless 
the effect of all the factors entering into it is known. In factories, 
where food is prepared on a large scale, temperatures are carefully 
measured or determined automatically, and amounts and times are 
accurately controlled. These methods, which make for efficiency 
and economy, are being used more and more in the household. 

Such measurements as require costly or delicate apparatus cannot 
yet be expected to be common in the home; and some still think 
that the measurement of temperature of rooms, of ovens and sirups, 
and the weighing of purchases, etc., are unimportant. However, 
scales, thermometers and a few other simple measuring appliances 
can be obtained for a small expenditure, and this circular will at¬ 
tempt to show some of the advantages of their use. Measuring 
instruments for household use which are automatic, or which may 
easily be operated without special training, are becoming more and 
more available. 


Household Measuring Appliances. 

A large variety of measuring appliances are used in connection with 
the household work. (See Fig. 3.) 


Kitchen Measuring Appliances. 

In the kitchen more accurate weights and measures are gradually 
coming into common use as the units used are becoming better de¬ 
fined. Domestic science departments of schools and colleges are 
largely responsible for this advance. 

The basis of the kitchen system of weights and measures is the 
standard cup, a measure holding 8 fluid ounces — that is, one-half 
liquid pint — and used to measure either dry or liquid commodities. 
One of these cups, subdivided into thirds, fourths, or both, should 


17 






TEMPERATURE. 


Thermometer 


density 

l 

I 

y 

Hydrometer 


VOLUME 


ELECTRICITY 


Watt hour meter 


WEIGHT 


PRESSURE 


Aneroid barometer 


GAS 


Gas meter 


Graduate 


TIME 


Clock 


Time (music) 


Metronome 


WATER 


Wafer meter 


Ba/ance 


Fig. 3. — A group of typical measuring instruments used in the home. 

The efficient management of the home requires a set of suitable measuring appliances. The group 
shown above emphasizes the variety of measurements needed by the modern household. The pictures 
do not show true relative sizes nor is the list complete. Other types are found in many modern houses 
and other forms of those shown above are recommended for special purposes. 























































18 


be procured, since the ordinary china cups vary greatly in size. 
A special set of spoon measures (from one-fourth teaspoonful up) 



Fig. 4. — Measures used in the kitchen. 

For cooking and other purposes in the kitchen the following capacity measures are useful: a 4-ounce 
glass graduate, a teaspoon measure (with half and quarter fractions) and a cup measure (of glass or metal). 
The cup measures shown have the same capacity (8 fluid ounces), although the thinner walls of the alumi¬ 
num measure make it smaller in appearance. 


will be found convenient, since ordinary spoons also vary in size. 
Moreover, neither the ordinary cup nor spoon is adapted to measur¬ 
ing fractions of their capacity. 


Equivalents of Capacity used in the Kitchen. 

The measures of capacity used in the kitchen are based upon the 
standard cup, as follows: — 


3 teaspoonfuls = 1 

4 tablespoonfuls = \ 

\ cupful = 1 

2 gills = 1 

1 cupful = 8 

2 cupfuls =16 

16 fluid ounces = 1 

4 cupfuls = 1 


tablespoonful = 4 drams, 
cupful = 2 fluid ounces, 
gill = 4 fluid ounces, 
cupful = 8 fluid ounces, 
fluid ounces, 
fluid ounces, 
pint, 
quart. 


In the above table all measures are level full. The equivalents 
given will permit the use of the large glass graduate for measuring 
liquids in cooking. 

In Table 1 are given equivalents of units commonly used in cooking 
and for other household purposes. 








19 


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3 


'G 

o 

d 

03 

ft 

3 

*3 

G 4 

• ^ 

Fh 

03 

- 4-5 

G3 

• H 


C3 





r-H 





































20 


HEAT AND HEATING APPLIANCES. 

Heating Value of Fuels. 

The heat required for heating, cooking and other purposes may 
come from any one of several sources, and the one chosen should 
depend upon the cost and convenience of the heat supplied from 
these different sources. Table 2 gives the approximate amount of 
heat produced by burning several different kinds of fuel, also the 
number of gallons of water which could be heated from 32° to 
212° F. (0° to 100° C.) for 1 cent, if no heat were lost. 

These figures apply to the cost of the heat actually supplied to 
the water, but the true cost of any operation, like heating a kettle 
of water or baking a loaf of bread, will depend also upon what pro¬ 
portion of the heat is utilized, and this again depends upon the 
nature of the fuel. For instance, a coal fire must be kept burn¬ 
ing for a long time in a stove of considerable size, so that much 
of the heat from the fuel is used in heating the stove and still more 
is radiated from the heated surface of the stove, while perhaps only 
a very little heat is actually used. A gas burner, on the other hand, 
may be lighted and turned out quickly, and there is no large amount 
of metal to heat, so that much less heat is wasted. For this reason 
gas, which costs six times, as much as hard coal for each heat unit, 
may still be cheaper than coal to use when heat is needed for only 
a short time. 


21 


Table 2. — Comparison of Fuels. 


Material. 

Heating 

Value. 

Price. 

Gallons 
of Water 
which 
could be 
heated 
from 32° 
to 212° F 
for 1 Cent. 

Softwood, ...... 

Btu per 
Pound. 

8,000 

$4 per cord (2 tons), . . 

53.00 

Hardwood,. 

8,000 

$4 per cord (3 tons), 

80.00 

Soft coal. 

13,000 

$4 per ton, . . • 

43.00 

Hard coal,. 

13,000 

$7 per ton. 

25.00 

Coke,. 

12,000 

$5 per ton. 

32.00 

Charcoal,. 

16,000 

$25 per ton,. 

8.50 

Fuel oil. 

18,000 

$1.25 per barrel (50 gallons), 

36.00 

Kerosene,. 

18,000 

$0.10 per gallon, .... 

8.30 

Alcohol,. 

12,000 

$0.50 per gallon, .... 

1.00 

Gasoline, ...... 

19,000 

$0.20 per gallon, .... 

3.50 

Natural gas, .... 

Btu per Cubic 
Foot. 

1,000 

$0.40 per 1,000 cubic feet, 

17.00 

Manufactured gas, .... 

600 

$1.00 per 1,000 cubic feet, 

4.20 

Electricity,. 

Btu per Kilo¬ 
watt Hour. 
3,400 

$0.10 per kilowatt hour, 

0.23 

Ice (to absorb heat), .... 

Btu per 
Pound. 

160 

$0.35 per hundredweight, 

0.321 


1 Water from 212° F. to 32° F., gallons for 1 cent. 


Note. — Ice in melting absorbs 143 Btu per pound, but the ice water thus formed also absorbs from 
15 to 20 Btu additional before it leaves the refrigerator, making a total of about 160 Btu. 

Hard coal when burned gives out about 13,000 Btu per pound, and if it costs $7 per ton, the last column 
shows that 25 gallons of water can be heated from 32° to 212° by burning 1 cent’s worth of coal, provided 
none of the heat were lost; or kerosene supplies 18,000 Btu per pound, and 1 cent’s worth of it at 10 cents 
per gallon would heat 8.3 gallons of water from 32° to 212° F. 


All fuels in burning require a certain amount of air. If enough 
air is not supplied, part of the fuel will not burn; if too much air is 
supplied, an unnecessary amount of heat is carried away in the 
smoke. 

The economy of different fuels depends upon how completely they 
are burned. It is easy to see that coal is usually not entirely burned, 
since unburned pieces are found in the ashes. That gas, also, is not 






















22 


always entirely burned may not be so well known, because unburned 
gas is not visible. But partly burned gas is always dangerous, con¬ 
taining more or less of the poisonous gas carbon monoxide. This gas 
is produced when a burner “strikes back” or burns in the tube instead 
of from the proper openings. Some of it is also 
produced when an ordinary gas, oil or gasoline flame 
plays upon a cold surface, as the bottom of a kettle 
of water. Partly burned gas can almost always be 
detected by a pungent odor. This is not the odor 
of carbon monoxide, but some of the latter is almost 
always present when there is such an odor. On 
account of the danger of this gas (carbon monoxide) 
all gas water heaters, and preferably gas and gaso¬ 
line stoves as well, should be supplied with flues to 
carry off dangerous or partly burned gases. 

Gas-stove burners should be adjusted so that the 
blue-green central part of the flame is about half the 
height of the whole flame. If the flame is very long 
and is bright yellow in parts, too little air is being 
admitted; if short and inclined to make a slight 
roaring noise, there is too much air. In the latter 
case the flame is liable to “strike back,” under which 
condition much carbon monoxide is formed. In all 
gas burners the various openings should be kept 
clean. The amount of air supplied to gas burners is 
usually adjusted by means of a small damper or 
slide to be found at the base of the burner. 



Fig. 5. — A ther¬ 
mometer for 
measuring the 
temperature of 


rooms. 


Radiation of Heat. 

Hot objects, like stoves and steam pipes, lose much 
of their heat by radiation, and the blacker the object 
the more it will lose; hence, stoves and steam pipes 
should be blacked if they are intended to give out 
heat, but hot-air pipes, cooking utensils, etc., should 
be bright (for instance, tinned or nickeled) in order to lose as little heat 
as possible. A stove nickel plated all over will give out only about 
half as much heat as the same stove at the same temperature if 
black. Brightly tinned hot-air furnace pipes often lose less heat bare 
than they do when covered with one or two layers of asbestos paper, 


Such thermom¬ 
eters should be 
hung about 4 feet 
from the floor and 
away from cold out¬ 
side walls, windows 
or heating appli¬ 
ances. 








23 


since the asbestos paper radiates heat so much more readily than 
the bright tin as to more than balance the insulating effect of the 
thin asbestos covering. Of course, if the pipes were black to begin 
with, the covering would be useful, and if the insulating material 



Figs. 6 and 7. — Thermometers for use out of doors. 

Such thermometers should be hung about 4 feet from the ground 
in the shade and not against the side of a building. 


were thick enough (say § inch or more) it would save heat even on 
bright tin pipes. 

A bright nickel or aluminum kettle will cool very much more 
slowly than a black kettle. On a coal or wood stove or directly over 
a coal or wood fire a kettle is heated largely by heat radiated from 
the stove or fire, therefore if the bottom is black the kettle will heat 
more rapidly than if bright. Over a gas, gasoline or similar blue 

























24 


flame the condition of the bottom will not make so much difference, 
since here most of the heat is received by contact with the hot gases. 
The best kettle for general use is therefore one with the bottom 
black and the remainder polished, but for use on a gas stove it 
makes little difference whether the bottom is black or not. 

Regulation of Stoves, Ranges and Other Heating Appliances. 

The air which enters cold below the fire in any stove or furnace 
passes up through the fire, producing combustion and absorbing the 
heat produced, except that which escapes through the sides of the 



Fig. 8. — Types of clinical thermometers. 

These thermometers are used by physicians and nurses, 
and one should be owned by every family. 


fire box. This heated air may then be utilized for heating in one of 
several ways, as by letting it pass around water tubes or through 
flues in a boiler, around air flues in hot-air furnaces, around the 
oven in a cooking range, or through a heating drum and length of 
pipe in the common heating stove. Whatever heat is left in the 







25 


flue gas when it enters the chimney is useless except for increasing 
the draft. It is therefore important to utilize as large a proportion 
of the heat as possible before the gases reach the chimney. This 
can best be done by (1) having the gases as hot as possible, (2) al¬ 
lowing them to pass out as slowly as practicable, and (3) bringing 
them into the best possible contact with the flues, oven sides or 
other heating surfaces. 

Good contact between flue gases and the heating flues can only 
be obtained in any given stove or furnace by keeping the flues clean 
and free from soot and ashes. This is very much more important 
than most persons realize. 

The gases will be hotter and will also pass more slowly the less 
their amount; therefore no more air should be admitted to the stove 
or furnace than is necessary. This applies particularly to air which 
might be admitted over the fire by opening the fire door or a draft 
in it, except under the following conditions: — 

When combustible gases are produced by the heating of fuels 
such as soft coal or wood, it is sometimes necessary to admit air over 
the fire so as to permit the gases to burn. Therefore with such fuels 
some air should be admitted through the fire door, or in some other 
manner immediately over the fire, so long as a bright flame is pro¬ 
duced. 

With hard coal, coke and charcoal, as well as with wood or soft 
coal, after the flame has burned out no air should be admitted over 
the fire. 

In most cooking ranges and in some heating stoves and furnaces 
there is a damper which permits smoke from the firebox to pass 
directly to the chimney without passing through the heating flues. 
One should learn how any such damper operates and keep it closed, 
except possibly when first starting up the fire. Opening this damper 
will often make the fire burn more briskly, but most of the extra 
heat thus produced is usually lost up the chimney. In summer, 
however, when extra heat is not desired, this damper may be left 
open to allow heat to escape up the chimney. 

This discussion suggests a few general rules for controlling heating 
and cooking fires. 

1. To increase the amount of heat, open drafts which let air into 
the ash pit, and with soft coal and ivood when fresh fuel has been 
added admit some air by draft immediately over the fire to help 


26 



Fig. 9. — Two common temperature scales, viz., Fahrenheit 
and centigrade. 

On the centigrade scale the freezing point and normal boiling point 
of water are, respectively, 0° and 100°; on the Fahrenheit scale these 
points are 32° and 212°; thus 1° centigrade is equal to 1.8° Fahrenheit. 





























27 


burn the combustible gases coming from the fresh fuel. For all 
fires burning without flame keep this draft closed. 

2. To decrease the amount of heat close all drafts tight (being 
sure that ash-pit door and drafts particularly are tight and that the 
ash pit itself is free from air leaks), and if this is not sufficient open 
a check draft in the smoke pipe ( never the one in the fire door or the 
door itself, as this practice is extremely wasteful of fuel). 

3. To insure economy of fuel see that all flues and surfaces which 
the hot gases pass on their way to the chimney are cleaned every 
two or three weeks. 

4. Be very careful in the use of the damper which closes off the 
smoke pipe, as such a damper is dangerous if closed too tightly and 
can be left wide open or taken out entirely provided the ash pit is 
tight and the above directions are followed. 

5. Keep the direct draft in a cooking stove or range closed except 
in hot weather, or when starting a fire. 


Coal. 

After coal has been delivered, its weight can be checked only 
roughly. If shortages are suspected, the details should be reported 
to the local sealer, w T ho should be able to re weigh the coal furnished, 
or at any rate check the weight of the next delivery, if notified when 
this will occur. A weight certificate should be furnished by the 
seller, showing the net weight of the coal claimed to be delivered. 
The quantity of coal delivered may be roughly checked by ascer¬ 
taining the amount in the bin, provided this is empty before the 
new coal is put in. If the bin is rectangular, with a level bottom 
and vertical sides, this is accomplished as follows: measure the exact 
length and the exact width of the bin in feet and fractions of a 
foot. Then level off the top of the coal and measure its depth in 
the same unit. The product of the length and width of the bin, 
multiplied by the average depth of the coal, will be the number of 
cubic feet of coal in the bin. Multiply this result by the weight of 
the coal per cubic foot , as given below, and the product will be the 
approximate number of pounds of coal in the bin. This evidence 
alone would not be accepted by a court, but it may be used to detect 
gross shortages and as a basis of complaint to the local sealer. 


28 


Average Weight of Anthracite Coal in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

The average weight per cubic foot of anthracite (hard) coal varies 
with the size into which it is broken, and with the kind of coal or 
the vein from which the coal comes. The latter variation is nearly 
10 per cent., but the figures given below are the average of several 
different kinds and will probably represent the average coal pur¬ 
chased within 2 or 3 per cent. Red-ash coal is somewhat lighter 
than that giving white ashes, hence, two sets of values are given 
below: — 


Average Weight of Anthracite Coal in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 


Size. 

White Ash. 

Red Ash. 

Egg. 

57.0 

53.0 

Stove. 

56.5 

52.5 

Nut. 

55.5 

52.0 

Pea,. 

53.5 

51.0 

Buckwheat,. 

53.0 

50.5 


The weight of bituminous (common soft) coal varies even more 
than that of anthracite, according to the locality from which the 
coal comes, and about the best figure that can be used is 47 to 55 
pounds per cubic foot. 

Example. — Find the number of pounds of a white ash anthracite 
coal of nut size in a bin 6 feet long and 4 feet 3 inches wide, with 
vertical sides, the coal filling the bin to an average depth of 2 feet 
6 inches. Then, following directions and taking from the above 
table the weight of a cubic foot of white ash nut coal as 55.5 pounds — 

Area of bottom = 6 feet by 4.25 feet = 25.5 square feet. 

Volume of coal = 25.5 square feet by 2.5 feet = 63.75 cubic feet. 

Weight of coal = 63.75 by 55.5 = 3,538 pounds. 

If in this case 2 tons of coal were charged for, and the measure¬ 
ments were accurately made, the purchaser may be fairly certain 
that full weight has not been delivered. 














29 


REFRIGERATION. 

Refrigerators. 

The ordinary household refrigerator, even of the best make, is by 
no means as effective in the saving of ice as might be desired. The 
principles of operation are, briefly, as follows: a block of ice is 
placed in a compartment near the top of the refrigerator and having 
one or more openings at both top and bottom. The air next the 
ice becomes cool and sinks through the bottom openings of the ice 




Fig. 10. — Diagram showing the circulation of air in two usual types of refrigerators. 

Air entering the ice chamber is freed from odors, cooled, and sinks through the bottom openings, 
drawing in the wa rmer air at the top. Butter, milk and meats should occupy the coolest space, while 
food having a strong odor should be placed where the air is just about to enter the ice chamber. 


chamber into the main part of the refrigerator, while warmer air 
from the upper part of the refrigerator enters the top of the ice 
chamber and is there cooled. There is thus a continuous circulation 
of air past the ice and through the food chamber. (See Fig. 10.) 
This circulation is important because it distributes the cooled air to 
all parts of the refrigerator, and also because on passing the ice the 
air loses some of the moisture and the odors which it has taken up 





































30 


from the food, especially that which is not yet cold. Therefore, 
anything which retards this circulation or stops up the openings to 
the ice chamber should be avoided. 

Slow melting of the ice does not necessarily indicate a good re¬ 
frigerator. Unless the ice melts it can absorb no heat and is there¬ 
fore of no use in a refrigerator. Protecting the ice in a refrigerator 
by covering it up is a good way to save ice but a poor way to save 
food. The only proper way to use less ice is by using a refrigerator 
with better insulated walls, and by opening the doors as seldom and 
for as short times as possible. 

It has been found (Bulletin No. 98 of United States Department 
of Agriculture) that in milk kept at 60° about fifteen times as many 
bacteria will develop in one day as in milk kept at 50° F., and much 
the same is true of many other foods. It is important, therefore, to 
find the coldest places in a refrigerator (usually near where the air 
leaves the ice chamber) and use these places for foods such as milk 
and meats, which need to he kept as cool as possible to prevent spoiling. 

Ice. 

A cubic foot of ice (12 by 12 by 12 inches) weighs 57 pounds, 
8 ounces. A cubic inch of ice weighs .532 ounce. A cake 22 by 22 
and 1 inch thick weighs 16 pounds, and for each additional inch in 
thickness the weight will increase 16 pounds. A cake 22 by 32 and 
1 inch thick weighs 23 pounds, and for each additional inch in 
thickness the weight will increase 23 pounds. 

The following table shows the weight of pieces of ice of various 
sizes. For other sizes multiply length by width by height, and that 
product by .532, and divide the result by 16. 


Inches. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

7X7X7 . 

11 

9X12X15. 

54 

8X 8X 8. 

17 

11X11X14,. 

56 

8X 9X10,. 

24 

12X12X12,. 

58 

9X 9X 9. 

24 

8X22X10. 

59 

9X 9X10. 

27 

10X12X15. 

60 

8X10X11,. 

29 

12X12X13. 

62 

10X10X10,. 

33 

8X22X11. 

64 

8X11X12,. 

35 

12X12X14,. 

67 

9X10X12,. 

36 

8X22X12. 

70 

10X10X11. 

37 

12X12X15. 

72 

8X11X13. 

38 

12X13X14. 

73 

8X12X12,. 

38 

13X13X13,. 

73 

10X10X12. 

40 

8X22X13,. 

76 

11X10X11. 

40 

13X13X14. 

79 

9X10X14. 

42 

13X13X15. 

84 

10X11X12,. 

44 

11X24X10. 

88 

11X11X11. 

44 

13X14X15. 

91 

11X11X12,. 

48 

14X14X14. 

91 

11X11X13. 

52 

10X16X18. 

96 

11X12X12. 

53 

12X14X18,. 

101 



Note. The above table was compiled by the Natural Ice Association of America. 


LIGHT. 

Sources and Cost of Light. 

For the production of light a great variety of lamps are available 
and in some kinds remarkable improvements have been made in 
the last few years. These improvements have made it possible in 
many cases either to improve the lighting of the home without 
increasing the cost or to reduce the cost. The cost of lighting by 
any method depends to some extent on local conditions, and the 
statements of cost given below will apply only approximately in any 
particular case. The cost will naturally depend on the candlepower 
of lamps used and the time the lamps burn. In order to make com¬ 
parisons between different kinds of lamps it is convenient to con¬ 
sider a definite amount of lighting, which is obtained by multiplying 
the candlepower of the lamps burned by the number of hours they 
burn. For example, 1,000 candle-hours of lighting may be obtained 





























32 


by burning a 10-candle lamp 100 hours or a 50-candle lamp 20 
hours, but if the lamps are of the same kind the cost will be about 
the same. Calculations of the cost of producing 1,000 candle-hours 
by different lamps are sometimes useful in choosing between lamps, 
but of course it does not necessarily follow that the lamp for which 

Candles 



Kerosene F/ame\ 
Kerosene Man He ■ 
Gas Open F/ame ' 
Gas ManHe ■ 


Carbon Electric r 

"Gem" Electric 
Tungsten Electric— 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 AO 

Cost of IOOO candle-hours in cents 

Fig. 11. — Relative cost of producing a given amount of light by 
various illuminants at usual prices. 

Costs are based on the following prices: candles, 12 cents per pound; kero¬ 
sene, 15 cents per gallon; gas, $1 per 1,000 cubic feet; electricity, 10 cents per 
kilowatt hour. The solid lines represent cost of fuel or of current, the shaded 
parts the cost of the mantles and bulbs. Where prices are different from those 
given above, costs will be correspondingly different. 


this cost is lowest is most economical for household use. Data 
concerning relative costs of producing light by common methods 
usually employed in the house are given in Fig. 11. 

The Gas Meter Index and How to read it. 

Fig. 12 illustrates the index of an ordinary gas meter, which is 
similar to that of an electric meter or a water meter. The smaller 
top dial, which is marked “Two feet” inside of the circle, is gener¬ 
ally called the “testing circle” or “proving head,” and is used prin¬ 
cipally in testing the meter. One revolution of the hand of the test¬ 
ing circle indicates that 2 cubic feet of gas have passed through the 
meter. In some meters one revolution of the hand of the testing 













33 


circle represents more or less than 2 cubic feet of gas, and the testing 
circles are correspondingly marked. The indication of the hand of 
the testing circle is ignored in the ordinary reading of the meter. 

Of the large dials the first one at the right is usually marked 
“ 1 thousand. This means that during one complete revolution 
of the hand 1,000 cubic feet of gas has passed through the meter, 
this dial is divided into 10 equal parts, so that the passage of the 
hand over each part indicates the passage of one-tenth of 1,000 



Each dial is marked with the volume of gas passed per revolution. The 
smaller top dial, which is marked “Two feet” inside of the circle, is 
generally called the “testing circle” or “proving head” and is used 
principally in testing the meter. 


cubic feet, or 100 cubic feet. For most meters it may be said of 
the other dials that the complete revolution of each hand indicates 
the passage of ten times as much gas as one revolution of the hand 
of the dial of next lower denomination (usually the one to the right). 
The figure representing the number of cubic feet discharged during 
one revolution of the hand appears over each dial. Thus if the first 
dial is marked “ 1 thousand,” the second dial will be marked “ 10 
thousand,” the third ”100 thousand,” and so on. 

The reading of the index, as illustrated in Fig. 12, is as follows: — 

Cubic Feet. 

Reading of “ 1 thousand” dial,. 200 

Reading of ” 10 thousand ” dial,.5,000 

Reading of ” 100 thousand” dial,. 30,000 


Complete reading of the meter, 


35,200 




34 



Cost of Gas consumed per Hour. 

Numerals refer to Cost per Hour in Mills (Tenths of a Cent). 

Minimum * 4 Maximum ° 10 


Mean = 6 


(Fish Tail) Burner 



In verfed Manile 




Junior Upright Mantle 


(Fish Tail) Burnet — Turned Down 



Mantle Pilol 


Fig. 13. - 1 — Cost of gas used per hour in some common gas appliances. 

The cost per hour is calculated on the basis of gas at $1 per 1,000 cubic feet. The large difference between 
maximum and minimum costs is due to difference in size of burners and difference in the pressure of the 
gas supply. The mean value represents the cost under average conditions. 

For a water heater of ordinary household size the gas would cost from 3 to 8 cents per hour. For larger 
automatic water heaters gas would cost from 10 to 25 cents per hour for the period that the heater is in 
operation. The pilot-flame gas for these heaters would amount to one-tenth of a cent per hour. Room 
heaters require 5 to 12 cents worth of gas per hour. 

Since a match costs only one-tenth mill or less, it is usually economical to turn off the gas when not in 
use, except for short intervals. 














35 


Reading the Watt Hour Meter Dials. 

A view of the dials of a modern 1 electric meter is given in Fig. 14. 
1 he method of reading is similar to that of reading the dials of a 
gas meter. The reading in Fig. 14 is 538 kilowatt hours. In taking 
down these figures one should read the dials from right to left; that 



KILOWATT HOURS 

Fig. 14. — Dial of a watt hour meter. 

In this dial the hands are correctly set on their shafts. The reading is 

538 kilowatt hours. 


is, in the reverse of the usual order of writing numbers. The pointer 
on the dial at the extreme right points to 8; the number 8 is written 
down as the figure in the units place. The index of the next dial 
to the left has passed the 3, but has not reached the 4, as shown by 


KILOWATT HOURS 

Fig. 15. — Dial of a watt hour meter. 

In this dial the hand on the second circle from the right is slightly in advance 
of its proper position on its shaft. The reading is the same as in Fig. 14, namely, 
538 kilowatt hours, although at a glance it might be incorrectly read as 548 
kilowatt hours. 



the fact that the units dial reads 8; the figure 3 is accordingly 
written in the tens place. The index of the third dial has passed 
the 5, and this figure is to be written in the hundreds place, giving 
538 kilowatt hours as the reading of the meter, since the index of 
the dial at the extreme left has not reached the figure 1. 

1 There are older types of meters in service which have five dials, the one farthest to the right having 
10 divisions, each equal to one-tenth of a kilowatt hour, instead of 1 kilowatt hour per division as in the 
standard dial herein described. 



36 


Generally speaking, the electric meter is a commercially accurate 
measuring device. It requires cleaning at certain intervals, just as 
a watch does, and, like the watch, if neglected it usually tends to 
run slow. Under some circumstances a meter may be fast; that is 
it may record in excess of the actual energy that has passed through 
it. Properly managed electric light companies do not want their 
meters to run either fast or slow, and they have a force of men 
whose work consists of testing, cleaning and readjusting meters. 

Causes of High Bills for Electricity. 

When the bill for electric current seems unduly high, the meter 
is often the first thing suspected. In reality it is usually the last 
thing to blame. Some of the reasons for higher bills are as follows: — 

1. Cloudy or rainy weather, requiring use of light in daylight 
hours. 

2. Additional lamps may have been installed, or small lamps may 
have been replaced by larger ones. 

3. Old dim lamps may be in use; in order to get sufficient illumi¬ 
nation more of them must be lighted than would be necessary if 
lamps in good condition were used. A dim lamp takes practically 
as much current as a new one, and is a very wasteful thing to use. 
With lamps in good condition, the light will not be efficiently pro¬ 
duced if the electric company allows the voltage to be low. 

In this connection it may be well to state that the tungsten lamp 
has been improved in quality and reduced in price to such an extent 
that no customer can afford to use carbon lamps, even if he were 
paid a bonus on each lamp for so doing. Many householders cling 
to the use of carbon lamps because they are usually supplied free. 
The folly of this course maybe realized from the following statement: 
the cost of a lamp is reckoned in cents, but the cost of the energy to 
operate it during its life is a matter of dollars. The energy cost for a 
tungsten lamp is only about one-third that of the carbon lamp. 

4. Lamps are sometimes left burning for days in attics, closets 
and other out of the way places. 

5. Electric laundry irons, toasters or other heating devices may 
have been placed in service or used more than in former months. 
Motor-driven devices may have been installed. 

Many devices which are operated through flexible cord from a 
lamp socket take very much more power than any lamp which 


37 


would be used in the household. It is often erroneously believed 
that because such devices can be operated from a socket they re¬ 
quire no more power than a lamp. The extent of this error may be 
realized from the statement that a 6-pound laundry iron takes as 
much power as 20 tungsten lamps of about 20 candlepower each. 

6. Defective wiring may allow current to flow when no lights or 
other devices are in use. 

7. Where electric elevators or electrically driven machinery is 
used and not properly oiled and cared for, excessive friction may 
result, with a corresponding waste of power and increase in the bill 
for electric current. 

8. An error may be made by the company’s meter reader, so that 
the bill rendered is too high or too low. If it is too high, the bill 
for the following month will be low by the same amount, if the meter 
is then read correctly, so that the consumer will not usually lose 
anything in the long run. When a minimum monthly charge is made 
by the company, the consumer may lose in the long run. Hence, 
if an error has apparently been made by the meter reader, the com¬ 
pany should be requested to investigate the matter and to render a 
corrected bill if an error is found. 


Electricity Comparatively Inexpensive. 

An erroneous idea is abroad in the land that electricity, except for 
lighting perhaps, is tremendously expensive. Nothing is farther from 
the truth, as a little investigation plus a little arithmetic will prove. 

The accompanying table of various electrical devices commonly 
used in the home will give an idea of the amount of power required 
to operate the devices and may be used in estimating the cost of 
operation. The cost to operate each of these for one hour is based on 
a charge of 10 cents per kilowatt hour. 

For example, to find the cost of operating a 25-watt Mazda lamp 
for one hour at a charge of 10 cents per kilowatt hour, divide 25 by 
1,000, and, multiplying this result by 10 (charge per kilowatt hour), 
we find the product to be 0.25 watt. Therefore the cost is % of a 
cent per hour. 


38 


What Electricity Costs in the Home. 



Apparatus. 

Watts used. 

Cost in Cents 
per Hour. 

20 candlepower Mazda lamp,. 

25 

H 

Radiant toaster,. 

600 

6 

Chafing dish,. 

600 

6 

Disc stove,. 

600 

6 

Coffee percolator. 

450 

4^ 

6-pound iron, . 

550 

5^ 

8-inch fan (full speed),. 

25 


Sewing machine motor. 

55i 

H 

Ice cream freezer, ........... 

400i 

4 

Washing machine motor,.'. 

200i 

2 

Luminous radiator (small),. 

500 

5 

Heating pad,. 

22-441 

K-Yi 

Tubular air heater (small),. 

1,200 

12 

Tea kettle,. 

500 

5 

Ozonator,. 

15 

3-20 

Domestic buffing and grinding motor,. 

55i 

H 

Radiant grill,. 

600 

6 


The above table gives an idea of the low cost of operating the 
many conveniences adapted for household use. 

One cent’s worth of electricity — 

Will operate a 12-inch fan for two hours. 

Will operate a sewing machine motor for two hours. 

Will keep a 6-pound flatiron hot for twenty minutes. 

Will keep a heating pad hot for two hours. 

Will run a massage machine for two hours. 

Will run an electric pianola for one hour. 

Will keep a glue pot hot for one hour. 

Will pump 250 gallons of water 100 feet high. 2 

Will raise a large passenger elevator five stories a minute. 2 

Will give light of 24 candles for four hours. 

Will operate a vacuum cleaner for forty-five minutes. 

Will wash 5 tubs of clothes. 

Will protect your house from burglars one night. 

Will run an automobile one mile. 

Will in a family of 10 cook for one person one meal. 


1 Average. 


2 At power rate of 5 cents per kilowatt hour; other items at 10 cents per kilowatt hour. 























39 


WATER. 



Accuracy of Water Meters. 

Water meters are commercially accurate instruments. Cases of 
meters which register correctly when installed and overregister after 
being in service are very 
rare. Any derangement of 
the meter from dirt enter¬ 
ing the working parts or 
from other causes is likely 
to slow the meter down 
and cause it to under¬ 
register. There is a small 
amount of unavoidable 
leakage through the meter 
which causes it to under- 
register when very small 
quantities of water are 
passing. 

Meters for measuring 

Water for domestic use are Fig. 16 . — Form of direct-reading water-meter dial, 
usually graduated in cubic 

feet — sometimes in gallons. One cubic foot is taken commercially 
as equal to 7\ gallons. Hence, to reduce a meter reading in cubic 
feet to gallons, multiply the number of cubic feet by 7\. 


Reading of Water Meters. 

The ordinary form of dial is shown in Fig. 17. In Fig. 16 is 
shown a special form of register which is more convenient to read. 
It is known as a straight-line register and gives cubic feet or gallons 
directly. 

In Fig. 17 the unit is cubic feet, and is plainly marked on the dial. 
If the unit were gallons, the method of reading would be the same. 
The hands revolve around circles, each divided into 10 numbered 
divisions. The number on the outside of each circle indicates the 
number of cubic feet for one complete revolution of the hand. The 
divisions of the circles are numbered alternately in the counter clock¬ 
wise and clockwise direction. Thus, the first dial (at the bottom) is 
marked 10 and one division measures 1 cubic foot, the second 100 


40 


and one division measures 10 cubic feet, the next is marked 1,000 
and one division measures 100 cubic feet, and similarly for the rest. 
The small dial at the left measuring 1 cubic foot for a complete 
revolution is disregarded in reading the meter, being used for test 
purposes. One division of a circle is equal to a complete revolution 
of the hand on the next lower circle. When a hand is between two 
figures the lesser is to be taken. If a hand is very near a figure, 
whether that figure or the next lower is to be taken can be deter¬ 
mined by observing the hand in the 
next lower circle. Unless the hand on 
this circle has reached or just passed 
0 , the lesser figure is to be taken. The 
best method of reading is from low to 
high, that is from right to left. For 
example, reading the dial shown in 
Fig. 17 and setting down the figures 
successively from right to left, we have 
7 for units place, 6 for tens place, 8 
for hundreds place, and 1 for thou¬ 
sands place and for ten-thousands 
place, or 11,867 cubic feet. 

The circles on different makes of 
dial may be differently located on the 
dial, but the method of reading is the 
same as given. 

In meters larger than those ordinarily used for household measure¬ 
ment the lowest graduated circle, the one marked 10, corresponding 
to units place in the reading, is sometimes omitted, the lowest circle 
being then the one marked 100. In this case the meter is read 
exactly as described above, and a zero added in the units place. 

The dial after reading cannot be set back to zero. The record is 
continuous. The amount of water which has passed through the 
meter in a given time is therefore obtained by subtracting the first 
reading from the last. For example, if the meter were read the thir¬ 
tieth day of June and again the thirtieth day of July, the June 
reading is to be subtracted from that taken in July. 



Fig. 17. — Ordinary form of water- 
meter dial. 


Reading 11,867 cubic feet. 


41 


Using the Water Meter as a Measuring Appliance. 

The amount of water required for a particular use — for example, 
in watering a lawn — may be determined by first turning off all 
other outlets and allowing the hose to run, 
say, half an hour, reading the meter at the 
beginning and end of the period and sub¬ 
tracting the first reading from the second. 

Since the meter can only register when 
water is passing through, should the hands 
move when all outlets are closed, water is 
being wasted through some leak. This can 
be most easily detected by observing the 
circle marked “one foot,” referred to above 
as being provided for purposes of test. 

Conservation of Water Supplies. 

The elimination of water waste is a 
subject which should enlist the attention 
of all. In many of the smaller communities 
the source of supply does not furnish a 
sufficient quantity during dry seasons, 
while in more populous sections the pro¬ 
digious waste of water threatens the ade¬ 
quacy of present supplies for the rapidly 
growing populations. With waste un¬ 
checked, it becomes necessary to locate 
additional sources of supply and to con¬ 
struct new water works, involving the ex¬ 
penditure of large sums of money. 

As an adequate water supply is abso¬ 
lutely essential for health and comfort, as 
well as for protection from fire, willful waste 
of this precious commodity is unpardon¬ 
able. Wherever water service is metered, 
unnecessary waste is reflected in the water 
bills and thus suggests its own remedy, but 

the economic effect is the same whether the financial burden rests 
upon the individual or the municipality. 



Fig. 18. — Water leaks of 
various sizes. 


42 


Have you any defective water pipes or leaky fixtures on your 
property? 

Do you know what they cost you for water each day that they 
are allowed to remain in this condition? 

Do you or your tenants allow water to run to waste when not 
in use? 

Under average conditions in the cities of this Commonwealth 
the amount of water wasted, and the gross cost of the same for the 
several sizes of streams shown above, will be approximately as 
follows: — 


Stream. 

Gallons per 
Hour. 

Cost per 
Day. 


3,225 

$15 48 

% /i inch,. 

2,812 

13 50 

Yl inch,. 


7 66 

\i inch. 

473 

2 27 

J4 inch,. 

170 

82 

}4e inch,. 

2,7 

18 

Vs 2 inch,. 

16 

08 

Y& 4 , inch,. 

2.5 

01 


MEASUREMENTS OF TIME. 

Correct Time. 

In practically all towns in the United States the so-called correct 
time is the standard time of the standard time section in which the 
town is located. This country is divided into four standard time 
sections, designated by the names Eastern, Central, Mountain and 
Pacific sections, or by the meridians of longitude which are nomi¬ 
nally the middle of the sections, namely, the seventy-fifth, ninetieth, 
one hundred and fifth, and one hundred and twentieth. Each sec¬ 
tion is thus theoretically 15 degrees of longitude in width, the section 
central about the seventy-fifth meridian extending from longitude 
67° 30' to 82° 30', the ninetieth meridian section extending from 
82° 30' to 97° 30', etc. Practically, however, the boundaries of the 
sections are irregular, broken lines connecting the terminal or divi¬ 
sion points at which the various railroads change their time in 
passing from one section to another. Thus, the boundary between 

















43 


the Eastern and Central time sections extends, roughly, from Sault 
Ste. Marie, Mich., through Lake Huron to Detroit, Mich., thence 
through Lake Erie to Buffalo and then southward through western 
Pennsylvania to Atlanta and Savannah, Ga. 

All the clocks in any one time section would read the same if 
they were correct, and the clock time indicated by them would 
differ from that of the adjoining time sections by just one hour, 
the time of the section to the west being one hour slower, and that 
of the section to the east one hour faster, for each time section 
uses the mean solar time of its central meridian. 

Care of Timepieces. 

Precautions should be taken not only with clocks but also with 
watches to keep them at a constant temperature if one wishes to 
obtain the best results with them. If possible a watch should be 
kept at as nearly the same temperature at night as during the day. 
The variations with the drop in temperature at night will affect 
the rate of the alarm clock, uncompensated for temperature, much 
more than that of a watch, which is usually compensated for high 
and low temperatures. 

The careful handling of a timepiece of the balance-wheel type — 
clock or watch — is also important, because of the effect on the 
adjustment and rate. All sudden changes of motion should be 
avoided, and a fall is liable to bend some of the pivots and seriously 
change the rate. The position in which it is kept also makes a large 
difference in its rate, especially with the unadjusted cheaper types. 
Both the watch and the clock should best be kept in an upright posi¬ 
tion, both day and night, as uniformity of practice is the chief 
essential. All timepieces should, of course, be kept protected from 
dust and dirt. They should be wound regularly. It is perhaps 
better to wind a watch twice a day than once a day, if it is done 
regularly, and the last part of the winding should be done slowly, 
to avoid injury to the mechanism. 

Use of a Timepiece in the Kitchen. 

Many operations in the kitchen may be judged most easily and 
accurately by means of the elapsed time, especially where the opera¬ 
tion is carried out under uniform conditions, as, for example, the 


44 


boiling of food or even of baking where the heat supplied is con¬ 
tinuous and uniform in its rate of application. 

The most familiar case is, of course, the boiling of eggs. With a 
little experience and the keeping of a record of results, the same 
principle can be applied to cooking other foods to the most palatable 
condition. Such records will also be valuable in determining for 
future use the time necessary for the preparation of food materials. 

Even if interest in such methods is lacking, an alarm clock may 
be made very useful in giving a warning of the necessity of inspect¬ 
ing a given process which otherwise might be overlooked, and where 
food materials are frequently spoiled in preparation from lack of 
attention, the use of an alarm clock will soon save its cost. 

In using the alarm feature of an alarm clock, the setting mech¬ 
anism should be turned in one direction only, for the same reason 
as in the case of setting a clock with striking mechanism to correct 
time, to avoid locking or breaking the setting device. Occasionally 
the indicating hand of the alarm will not be placed correctly on its 
pinion and the alarm will sound at a different time from that ex¬ 
pected. This error will be a constant one, however, and its amount 
having been once learned, allowance may be made for it in setting 
the hand; or a watch repairer can correct the fault very quickly. 
Many alarm clocks have the dial for setting the alarm of very 
small diameter, making it difficult to make accurate settings of the 
hand. For this use it is desirable to secure a clock with as large 
an alarm-hand dial as possible, preferably one having the alarm 
hand set on the central pinion with the hour and minute hands. 
With such a clock the alarm can be set quite accurately for giving 
a signal at short intervals of time, and can be used to give warnings 
of the time to inspect certain processes of the kitchen, for the 
taking of medicine at regular intervals, etc. 


BRIEF REFERENCE TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Following will be found tables of units and special data regarding 
measurements. Many of the units used are somewhat vague and 
in some cases the terms are ambiguous. For example, the ounce 
used in the drug store is not the same as the ounce used in the 
grocery store, even when the same commodity is purchased, and the 
fluid ounce is different from either, and is not a weight at all. It 



45 


will thus be seen that for more careful work in connection with 
measurements the exact value of the units used should be clearly 
known. 


Avoirdupois Weight. 


27H grains (gr.) = 1 dram (dr.) 

16 dr. 

= 1 ounce (oz.)=437^ gr. 

16 oz. 

= 1 pound (lb.) =256 dr. = 7,000 gr. 

100 lb. 

= 1 hundredweight (cwt.) = 1,600 oz. 

20 cwt. 

= 1 ton (t.) = 2,000 lb. 

(In long measure.) 

112 lb. 

= 1 cwt. 

20 cwt. 

= 1 long ton (t.)= 2,240 lb. 


Troy Weight. 

24 grains (gr.) 

= 1 pennyweight (dwt.) 

20 dwt. 

= 1 ounce (oz.) = 480 grains. 

12 oz. 

= 1 pound (lb.) = 240 dwt. = 5,760 gr. 

Apothecaries’ Weight. 

20 grains (gr.) 

= 1 scruple (9). 

3 3 

= 1 dram (3) = 60 gr. 

8 3 

= 1 ounce ( 5 ) = 24 3 = 480 gr. 

12 5 

= 1 pound (lb) = 96 3 =288 9 = 5,760 ; 


Linear Measure. 

12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.) 

3 ft. 

= 1 yard (yd.) = 36 in. 

yd. 

= 1 rod (rd.) = 16£ ft. 

320 rd. 

= 1 mile (mi.) = 1,760 yd. = 5,280 ft. 


Linear Measures (Special). 


1,000 

72 

4 

7.92 

9 

6 

40 

10 

6,080.20 


mils = 1 inch, 
points =1 inch, 
inches = 1 hand, 
inches = 1 surveyor’s link, 
inches = 1 span, 
feet = 1 fathom, 
yards = 1 bolt (cloth). 
chains =1 furlong. 

feet = 1 nautical mile = 1.1516 statute miles. 


46 


Surveyor’s Measure. 

625 square links (sq. li.) =1 square rod (sq. rd.). 

16 sq. rd. =1 square chain (sq. ch.). 

10 sq. ch. =1 acre (a.). 

640 a. =1 square mile (sq. mi.). 

36 sq. mi. (6 mi. square) =1 township (tp. =23040 a.). 

Chain Measure. 

(Surveyors’ or Gunter’s Chain.) 

7.92 inches =1 link (li.). 

100 li. = 1 chain (ch.) = 66 ft. 

80 ch. =1 mile (mi.). 

The engineer’s chain is 100 feet long and consists of 100 links. 


Square Measure. 


144 

9 

30| 

160 


square inches (sq. in.) = 1 square foot (sq. ft.), 
sq. ft. =1 square yard (sq. yd.) 

sq. yd. =1 square rod (sq. rd.). 

sq. rd. =1 acre (a.). 


Liquid Measure. 


4 

2 

4 

3H 

2 


gills (gi.) = 1 pint (pt.). 

pt. =1 quart (qt.) = 8 gi. 

qt. = 1 gallon (gal.) =8 pt. = 32 gi. 

gal. = 1 barrel (bbl.) = 126 qt. 

bbls. = 1 hogshead (hhd.) =63 gal. = 252 qt. 


Cubic Measure. 

1,728 cubic inches (cu. in.) = l cubic foot (cu. ft.). 
27 cu. ft. =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 


United States Dry Measure. 

2 pints (pt.) = l quart (qt.). 

8 qt. =1 peck (pk.) = 16 pt. 

4 pk. =1 bushel (bu.) = 32 qt. = 64 pt. 

Apothecaries’ Fluid Measure. 

60 minims (m.) = 1 fluid dram=(fl. dr.). 

8 fl. dr. =1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 480 m. 

16 fl. oz. = 1 pint (O.) = 128 fl. dr. = 7,680 m. 

8 0. =1 gallon (cong.) = 128 fl. oz. = 1,024 fl. dr. 


47 


Number of Cubic Inches in United States Standard Capacity 

Measures. 


Dry Measure. 


1 bushel contains 2,150.42 cubic inches. 
h bushel contains 1,075.21 cubic inches. 
1 peck contains 537.60 cubic inches, 
i peck contains 268.80 cubic inches. 

\ peck contains 134.40 cubic inches. 

1 quart contains 67.20 cubic inches. 

1 pint contains 33.60 cubic inches, 
i pint contains 16.80 cubic inches. 


1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 


Liquid Measure. 

gallon contains 231 cubic inches, 
gallon contains 115.5 cubic inches, 
quart contains 57.75 cubic inches, 
pint contains 28.875 cubic inches, 
pint contains 14.437 cubic inches, 
gill contains 7.218 cubic inches, 
fluid ounce contains 1.804 cubic inches, 
dram contains .225 cubic inches. 


Paper Measure. 

For small papers the old measure is still in use: — 

24 sheets = 1 quire. 

20 quires = 1 ream (480 sheets). 

For papers put up in cases, bundles or frames the following measure is now used: — 

25 sheets = 1 quire. 

20 quires = 1 standard ream (500 sheets). 

Carat and Karat. 

Carat (for precious stones) = 200 milligrams. The carat was formerly an 
ambiguous term having many values in various countries. 

Karat (fineness of gold) = fV (by weight) gold. For example, 24 karats 
fine = pure gold; 18 karats fine = if pure gold. 


48 


THE METRIC SYSTEM. 

The metric system is based on a unit of length (the meter). A 
cubical box one-tenth of a meter on the side has the unit of capacity, 
a liter, and the water contained in a liter weighs one kilogram. The 
unit of weight, the gram, in the metric system is the weight of 
water contained in a cubical box one-hundredth of a meter on a 
side. 

(Note. — These values are not precisely correct, but hold for all 
but the most refined measurements.) 

The entire system is then built up by multiplying or dividing the 
unit by ten, one hundred and one thousand, using always the same 
prefix to indicate what the unit is multiplied or divided by. There 
is but one standard of weight, but one standard of measure for 
liquids and dry commodities, and but one standard of length. 


Tables. 


Prefixes. 

Meaning 

Fractions or Decimals. 

Units. 

milli- = one-thousandth,. 

1-1000 .001 


centi- = one-hundredth,. 

1-100 .01 


deei- = one-tenth,. 

1-10 .1 

“meter” for length. 

unit = one,. 

1 . 

“gram” for weight. 

deka- = ten,. 

10-1 10. 

“liter” for capacity. 

hecto- = one hundred,. 

100-1 100. 


kilo- = one thousand,. 

1000-1 1,000. 



The metric terms are formed by combining the words “meter,” 
“gram” and “liter” with the six numerical prefixes. 


Prefix. 


Outline Table. 


Unit. 


Ten milli-meters, grams or liters =one centi-meter, gram or liter. 
Ten centi-meters, grams or liters = one deci-meter, gram or liter. 
Ten deci-meters, grams or liters =one meter, gram or liter. 

Ten meters, grams or liters =one deka-meter, gram or liter. 
Ten deka-meters, grams or liters =one hecto-meter, gram or liter. 
Ten hecto-meters, grams or liters = one kilo-meter, gram or liter. 















49 


The following tables are formed by inserting successively the 
names of the three units in the columns headed “ unit ” in the above 
Outline Table: — 

Lengths. 

Ten milli-meters =one centi-meter. 

Ten centi-meters =one deci-meter. 

Ten deci-meters = one meter. 

Ten meters =one deka-meter. 

Ten deka-meters =one hecto-meter. 

Ten hecto-meters = one kilo-meter. 

The square and cubic units are the squares and cubes of the linear units. 


W 

Ten milli-grams = one centi-gram. 

Ten centi-grams =one deci-gram. 

Ten deci-grams =one gram (about 15 grains). 
Ten grams = one deka-gram. 

Ten deka-grams = one hecto-gram. 

Ten hecto-grams = one kilo-gram. 


Volumes. 


Ten milli-liters = one centi-liter. 

Ten centi-liters = one deci-liter. 

Ten deci-liters =one liter (about 1 quart). 

Ten liters = one deka-liter. 

Ten deka-liters = one hecto-liter (about 1 barrel). 
Ten hecto-liters =one kilo-liter. 


The ordinary unit of land area is the hectar (100 meters square), and is equal 
to 100 ars. The hectar is about acres. 


Table of Equivalents. 


1 meter = 39.37 inches. (Legal equivalent adopted 1866.) 

Where values given are not exact the equivalents are correct to 1 part in a 
thousand (0.001%). 

Lengths. 


Millimeters 

1 

= 0.03937 inch. 

Millimeters 

25.40 

= 1 

inch. 

Centimeters 

1 

= 0.3937 

inch. 

Centimeters 

2.540 

= 1 

inch. 

Meter 

0.305 

= 1 

foot. 

Meter 

1 

= 3.28 

feet. 

Meter 

0.914 

= 1 

yard. 

Meter 

1 

= 1.094 

yard. 

Kilometer 

1 

= 0.621 

mile. 

Kilometer 

1.61 

= 1 

mile. 


50 


Inches. 

Millimeters. 

Inches. Centimeters. 

Feet. 

Meters. 

U. S. Yards. Meters. 

U. S. Miles. Kilo¬ 
meters. 

0.03937 

= 

1 

0.3937 

= 

1 

1 

= 0.304801 

1 

= 0.914402 

0.62137 

= 1 

0.07874 

= 

2 

0.7874 

= 

2 

2 

= 0.609601 

1.093611 

= 1 

1 

= 1.60935 

0.11811 

= 

3 

1 

= 

2.54001 

3 

= 0.914402 

2 

= 1.828804 

1.24274 

= 2 

0.15748 

= 

4 

1.1811 

= 

3 

3.28083 

= 1 

2.187222 

= 2 

1.86411 

= 3 

0.19685 

= 

5 

1.5748 

= 

4 

4 

= 1.219202 

3 

= 2.743205 

2 

= 3.21869 

0.23622 

= 

6 

1.9685 

= 

5 

5 

= 1.524003 

3.280833 

= 3 

2.48548 

= 4 

0.27559 

= 

7 

2 

= 

5.08001 

6 

= 1.828804 

4 

= 3.657607 

3 

= 4.82804 

0.31496 

= 

8 

2.3622 

= 

6 

6.56167 

= 2 

4.374444 

= 4 

3.10685 

= 5 

0.35433 

= 

9 

2.7559 

= 

7 

7 

= 2.133604 

5 

= 4.572009 

3.72822 

= 6 

1 

= 

25.4001 

3 

= 

7.62002 

8 

= 2.438405 

5.468056 

= 5 

4 

= 6.43739 

2 

= 

50.8001 

3.1496 

= 

8 

9 

= 2.743205 

6 

= 5.486411 

4.34959 

= 7 

3 

= 

76.2002 

3.5433 

= 

9 

9.84250 

= 3 

6.561667 

= 6 

4.97096 

= 8 

4 

= 

101.6002 

4 

= 

10.16002 

13.12333 

= 4 

7 

= 6.400813 

5 

= 8.04674 

5 

= 

127.0003 

5 

= 

12.70003 

16.40417 

= 5 

7.655278 

= 7 

5.59233 

= 9 

6 

= 

152.4003 

6 

= 

15.24003 

19.68500 

= 6 

8 

= 7.315215 

6 

= 9.65608 

7 

= 

177.8004 

7 

= 

17.78004 

22.96583 

= 7 

8.748889 

= 8 

7 

= 11.26543 

8 

= 

203.2004 

8 

= 

20.32004 

26.24667 

= 8 

9 

= 8.229616 

8 

= 12.87478 

9 

= 

228.6005 

9 

= 

22.86005 

29.52750 

= 9 

9.842500 

= 9 

9 

= 14.48412 


Areas. 


Square millimeters 

1 

= 

0.00155 square inch. 

Square millimeters 645 

= 

1 

square inch. 

Square centimeters 

1 

= 

0.155 

square inch. 

Square centimeters 

6.45 

= 

1 

square inch. 

Square meter 

0.0929 

= 

1 

square foot. 

Square meter 

1 

= 

10.76 

square feet. 

Square meter 

0.836 

= 

1 

square yard. 

Square meter 

1 

= 

1.196 

square yard. 

Hectar 

0.405 

= 

1 

acre. 

Hectar 

1 

= 

2.47 

acres. 

Square kilometers 

1 

= 

0.386 

square mile. 

Square kilometers 

2.59 

= 

1 

square mile. 


Volumes. 



Cubic centimeters 

1 

= 

0.0610 cubic inch. 

Cubic centimeters 16.39 

= 

1 

cubic inch. 

Cubic meter 

0.0283 

= 

1 

cubic foot. 

Cubic meter 

1 

= 

35.3 

cubic feet. 

Cubic meter 

0.765 

= 

1 

cubic yard. 

Cubic meter 

1 

= 

1.308 

cubic yard. 














51 


Capacities. 


Cubic centimeters (milliliters) 

1 

= 0.0338 United States liquid ounce. 

Cubic centimeters (milliliters) 

29.57 

= 1 

United States liquid ounce. 

Cubic centimeters (milliliters) 

1 

= 0.2705 United States apothecary dram. 

Cubic centimeters (milliliters) 

3.70 

= 1 

United States apothecary dram. 

Liter 


0.946 

= 1 

United States liquid quart. 

Liter 


1 

= 1.057 

United States liquid quart. 

Liter 


1 

= 0.2642 United States liquid gallon. 

Liter 


3.785 

= 1 

United States liquid gallon. 

Liter 


1 

= 0.908 

United States dry quart. 

Liter 


1.101 

= 1 

United States dry quart. 

Dekaliter 


0.881 

= 1 

United States peck. 

Dekaliter 


1 

= 1.135 

United States peck. 

Hectoliter 


0.3524 = 1 

United States bushel. 

Hectoliter 


1 

= 2.838 

United States bushels. 



Weights. 


Gram 

0.0648 = 

1 

grain. 


Gram 

1 = 15.43 

grains. 


Gram 

1 

0.772 

United States apothecary scruple. 

Gram 

1.296 = 

1 

United States apothecary scruple. 

Gram 

1 

0.2572 

United States apothecary dram. 

Gram 

3.89 = 

1 

United States apothecary dram. 

Gram 

1 

0.0353 

avoirdupois ounce. 

Gram 

28.35 = 

1 

avoirdupois ounce. 

Gram 

1 

0.03215 

troy ounce. 

Gram 

31.10 = 

1 

troy ounce. 

Kilogram 

0.4536 = 

1 

avoirdupois pound. 

Kilogram 

1 

2.205 

avoirdupois pounds. 

Kilogram 

0.373 = 

1 

troy pound. 

Kilogram 

1 

2.679 

troy pounds. 

Metric ton 

1 

0.984 

gross or long ton. 

Metric ton 

1.016 = 

1 

gross or long ton. 

Metric ton 

0.907 = 

1 

short or net ton. 

Metric ton 

1 

1.102 

short or net ton. 


For all practical purposes the volume of 1 kilogram of water (1 liter ) is equal to 
1 cubic decimeter. 




















































































































































































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